A RESULT of the increasing significance and improvement of veterinary care for reptiles, kept both by professional zoological gardens and private breeders, is that veterinary surgeons who specialise in reptile reproduction have to meet more and more demanding requirements. These are comparable with the demands placed on human physicians or veterinarians caring for dogs and cats. This is illustrated by the development of diagnostic techniques that use various modifications of classical rigid endoscopic methods. These methods have made it possible for veterinarians to develop reliable and safe techniques of biopsy of organs such as the liver and kidneys (Hernandez-Divers and others 2005). The samples taken in this way and processed by histological techniques can be used to assess the extent and form of damage of vital organs and make a correct diagnosis and objective prognosis.
To be most useful, clinical diagnostics must be reliable and fast. At...]]>
A 2 per cent bodyweight acute soybean meal (SBM) intoxication was recently described in steers (Raboisson and others 2012). It induced a decrease in ruminal pH followed by an increase in ruminal ammonia, and blood metabolic alkalosis with hyperuraemia, severe hyperammonaemia and hyperglycaemia. This report describes the epidemiology, clinical signs (CS) and biochemical modifications observed during accidental SBM intoxication.
Thirty-nine Holstein cows were housed in loose yarding with a straw lying area. Mean annual and daily production was around 7000 and 25 litres of milk per cow, respectively. The diet consisted of corn silage, SBM and commercial concentrates. One tonne of SBM was accidently poured on the straw area (25 kg per cow on average) between 14:00 and 18:00 on day 0 (D0). During the evening, the farmer administered 300–400 g of NaHCO3 powder orally, once, to cows 1–5.
Cows 1–3 died during the night D0–D1 (
DYNAMIC upper respiratory collapse is a common cause of poor performance in horses (Dart and others 2001, Parente and others 2002, Tan and others 2005, Lane and others 2006). Dynamic endoscopy of the upper respiratory tract allows the identification of various obstructive conditions that endoscopy at rest is unable to identify. Until recently, this has only been achievable using high speed treadmill endoscopy (HSTE). This technique has allowed the identification of numerous obstructive conditions, including recurrent laryngeal neuropathy, intermittent dorsal displacement of the soft palate, axial deviation of the aryepiglottic folds, vocal fold collapse and, more recently, ventroaxial luxation of the apex of the corniculate process of the arytenoid cartilage (
Case 1. A 10-year-old female intact German shepherd dog, presented with a six-month history of progressive neck pain and ataxia of all four limbs. Neurological examination was consistent with a C1-C5 myelopathy. Atlanto-occipital cisternal cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis was unremarkable.
MRI of the neck using a 1.5 T magnet (Echospeed; GE Medical Systems) revealed degeneration of the C5-C6 intervertebral disc with mild dorsal protrusion causing mild right-sided ventro-lateral spinal cord compression; additionally, a 5 mmx6 mmx7 mm oval cystic structure dorsolateral to the spinal cord was noted, causing moderate right-sided dorso-lateral spinal compression at the same level. This lesion was T2 hyperintense, T1 hypointense, T2 FLAIR hypointense (all when compared with the spinal cord) and non-contrast enhancing.
A right-sided dorsal laminectomy was performed at C5-C6. The cystic lesion, originating from the dorsal nerve root lateral to the dorsal root ganglion, was fenestrated and a biopsy was obtained, taking care to avoid...]]>
Effective sheep flock health plans must be underpinned by flock-specific diagnostic information and should make use of wider national flock health information. However, information on disease prevalence at flock level is often incomplete. This is despite the fact that protocols to diagnose common sheep diseases are well established and cost effective.
Annual ewe mortality rates in the UK are estimated at 3–8 per cent (Johnston and others 1980, Scott 2007). The profile of diseases which contribute to mortality and involuntary culling in adult ewes in the UK flock is at present probably best estimated using Veterinary Investigation Diagnosis Analysis (VIDA) data (Gibbens and others 2008). This is generated by the Animal Health Veterinary Laboratories Agency (AHVLA) endemic disease scanning surveillance programme, which examines 500–700 ewes annually (VIDA 2012). However, the sample size, especially for carcases, is small, and the programme may have inherent biases (Nevel and Stark...]]>
The supply and use of veterinary anthelmintic and flukicide products in production animals is currently under scrutiny, in view of the concerns about the development of anthelmintic and flukicide resistance. A recent position statement from the Federation of Veterinarians of Europe (
While the rationale behind these recommendations could be questioned, the subject of responsible use of anthelmintics is important and serves to emphasise that veterinarians working with food-producing species must have a sound knowledge of both product availability...]]>
Pet reptiles are reported to be increasing in numbers with over 8 million captive in the UK alone (Federation of British Herpetologists data), with bearded dragons one of the most popular lizard species kept with numbers estimated to be in excess of 1 million. Agamid Adenovirus-1 (AAdV-1) infection was first reported in Australia in the early 1980s, and subsequently in the USA in the 1990s (Mitchell 2007). It spread through US populations and is now considered endemic (Mitchell 2007, Reavill and Griffin 2011). AAdV-1 is believed to be responsible for neurological symptoms, immunosuppression, reduced growth and death in infected bearded dragons, but many infected dragons may remain asymptomatic carriers, infecting offspring and in-contacts. As with many reptile viral infections, true pathogenicity is unclear with environmental factors and coinfections suspected to play a significant role in individual response (Marschang 2011).
As development of new colour patterns and scalation...]]>
An increasing human population in Uganda has had consequences for free-ranging chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii), including habitat destruction and antagonistic interaction with humans. This situation has led to increasing numbers of human-induced chimpanzee injuries, as well as elevated risks of pathogen transmission between these species. As a result, the need for veterinary intervention has increased commensurately.
The most common form of human-induced injury in chimpanzees in Uganda is from snaring (Waller and Reynolds 2001). Other situations that may require intervention are disease outbreaks and orphaned individuals. For example, respiratory disease outbreaks of human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus have occurred in chimpanzees in West Africa and have had devastating effects (Köndgen and others 2008). Interventions in such cases may be justified to provide treatment to the affected individuals and to obtain diagnostic specimens.
In deciding whether to intervene, veterinarians consult with wildlife authorities and consider the risk...]]>
BOVINE viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) is an outstandingly successful virus. It is best known as the cause of a variety of clinical conditions resulting in economic losses in cattle, but understanding its biology has shown that BVDV and other pestiviruses have features unique among viruses.
BVDV causes both transient and persistent infections and can escape the host's immune responses during both events. Transient infection occurs in cattle of all ages. Oronasal infection results in transient viraemia and virus excretion is low before it is eliminated by a standard immune response. The innate interferon response is followed by adaptive cell-mediated and humoral responses so that specific anti-BVDV antibody can be detected within three weeks of infection. Antibody levels continue to rise over the next two months and a solid immunity to that virus is maintained for years.
However, if infection occurs in a pregnant animal, the virus escapes...]]>
Marek's disease (MD) of chicken is caused by Gallid herpesvirus 2 belonging to the genus Mardivirus and family Herpesviridae. Annual losses due to MD the world over have been estimated to be more than 1 billion US dollars (Nair 2005). Previously, MD was reported to be a disease of younger chicken of 4–20 weeks old, but in recent times, it has been often observed in adult flocks (Lobago and Woldemeskel 2004, Ikezawa and others 2010). Mining activities generate a lot of dust that contaminates the environment and soil (Nagajyoti and others 2010), and prolonged exposure to mine dust could cause immunosuppression in chickens (Muniyellappa and others 2012). This communication reports occurrence of various forms of MD in vaccinated commercial layer flocks in the mining areas.
Six commercial layer poultry farms were randomly chosen in the mining area of north Karnataka. Flock details, clinical history and signs, morbidity, mortality,...]]>
Fibromatous nodular lesions were observed on the antler skin of reindeer from four separate farms, and from the haired skin from a deer from a fifth farm. The aim of this study was to investigate if the proliferative lesions represented an unusual manifestation of a viral infection. Despite extensive investigations using immunohistochemistry, PCR and electron microscopy, no evidence of viral involvement could be demonstrated. The aetiology of the lesions remains unknown.
Fibropapillomas are nodular or plaque-like lesions associated with papilloma virus (PV) infection; they have been observed in several deer species, including reindeer (Sundberg and Nielsen 1981, Ginn and others 2007). The histopathological findings typically include proliferation of dermal fibroblasts. Reindeer papilloma virus (RtPV1) has been detected in papillomatous lesions involving the haired skin of reindeer (Narechania and others 2004). In this report, we describe fibrous proliferation of the dermis of lesions involving the antler velvet and...]]>
IN THE past two decades there have been major changes in how farm animals are housed and managed. This is partly due to increased public awareness and interest in farm animal welfare and legislative changes. The most notable change in farm animal welfare legislation has been regarding housing for laying hens. In 1999, the EU banned the use of conventional battery cages by 2012 (Directive 1999/74/EC), resulting in a shift to alternative housing systems, such as furnished (enriched) cages, and loose-housing systems (eg, aviaries and free-range systems). Directive 1999/74/EC has been publicised as the ‘most important single piece of legislation to affect poultry keeping’ (Frölich and others 2012), having both economical and political effects (Pritchard 2012). Similar legislative changes are slowly occurring in other countries as well. For example, conventional battery cages will be phased out in some states in the USA within the next few years...]]>
The post-translationally modified amino acid 3-methylhistidine (3-MEH) is a component of the contractile proteins actin and myosin. The presence of 3-MEH in urine is associated with protein breakdown or nitrogen loss, as reported in laboratory rats (
Muscle wasting and weakness in humans...]]>
In the absence of sensitive, rapid and accurate diagnostic tests for the presence of parasites in individual sheep, introduced sheep are potential sources of multiple anthelmintic-resistant nematodes and psoroptic mange (sheep scab) mites, Psoroptes ovis (Sargison 2011, Burgess and others 2012). Current UK guidelines recommend treatment of all introduced sheep with an effective anthelmintic and, if there is a risk that they may harbour scab mites, additional treatment with an appropriate acaricide on arrival at the farm (Abbott and others 2012). The need for such quarantine treatments applies equally to all introduced animals, including purchased sheep and sheep returning from grazing areas away from the main farm (Sargison 2011).
A dual active formulation of derquantel (DQL) and abamectin (ABA) (STARTECT Dual Active Oral Solution for Sheep, Zoetis; DQL+ABA) was recently authorised in the UK and Ireland for the treatment of gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep including strains resistant...]]>
WRITING a science editorial regarding new aspects of equine grass sickness (EGS) is challenging at a time when we are eagerly awaiting results from vaccination trials and ongoing research, trying to identify the cause of EGS and factors involved in aetiopathogenesis.
Britain has remained the country most affected by this often fatal neurodegenerative disease, with EGS being one of the most important threats to equine health in some areas. To collate details of clinical cases in Great Britain, a nationwide surveillance scheme has been instituted (Wylie and others 2011). Similar to the Alert group for atypical myopathy, a European epidemiosurveillance network could be initiated for EGS, because the disease has also been reported in other countries, including Cyprus, Hungary and the Czech Republic (Protopapas and others 2012, Schwarz and others 2012; personal communication, B. Bezdekova). In north eastern Hungary, young horses (two to three years old) have...]]>
Environmental contamination by asbestos, obtained by mineral extraction for its use in buildings and industrial activity, still represents one of the health priorities of modern times (Bruno and others 2007). Asbestos-related risks and its implications in human disease, such as mesothelioma and similar conditions, are still controversial. In 2004, epidemiological studies revealed an unexpected high prevalence of pleural mesothelioma in human beings of Biancavilla village in Catania, a small town at the foot of Mount Etna (Biggeri and others 2004). This discovery provoked the public health authorities to investigate the environmental risk in the area. The source of the problem was identified as a local open-pit mine located near Monte Calvario, which had been used over the last century as a source of concrete-pozzolan sand for buildings in the town. Materials extracted from the quarry were incorporated into walls and frames of many old houses. Chemical studies...]]>
Foal immunodeficiency syndrome (FIS), a fatal autosomal recessive disease found in three breeds of horses, was first reported (in the Fell pony) in 1996, and it soon became apparent that significant numbers of syndrome foals were being born each year. In each FIS case, the foals are clinically normal at birth, but start to weaken at 2–8 weeks (Scholes and others 1998) as they develop profound anaemia (Dixon and others 2000) and do not have the ability to produce their own antibodies (Thomas and others 2005), due to the almost total lack of B lymphocytes in the circulation or tissues (Thomas and others 2003), but with apparently normal levels of functional T lymphocytes (Bell and others 2001). The outcome is persistent opportunistic infections with no effective treatment; euthanasia is the preferred option. FIS has also been reported in Fell ponies in The Netherlands (Butler and others 2006), Germany...]]>